The Grazing Legacy of the Lower Red Deer River Watershed: From Bison to Cattle and Horses

The Lower Red Deer River Watershed has witnessed a dramatic transformation in its grazing history over the past two centuries, from vast herds of wild bison to domesticated cattle and horses that now dominate the landscape. This ecological transition represents not only a change in the animals that graze these lands but also profound shifts in land management, ecosystem functioning, and human relationships with the landscape. This report explores the rich grazing history of this region, tracing the path from indigenous wildlife management through European settlement to modern conservation practices.

The Red Deer River Watershed: A Landscape Defined by Water and Grass

The Red Deer River watershed occupies 49,650 square kilometers—approximately 8% of Alberta's landmass—and is home to around 300,000 people. The river itself flows eastward over 724 kilometers from its headwaters in the Skoki Valley of Banff National Park before joining the South Saskatchewan River system, which ultimately drains to Hudson's Bay^[1]. This expansive watershed encompasses a remarkable diversity of landscapes, traversing five distinct natural regions: the Rocky Mountains, Foothills, Boreal Forest, Parkland, and Grassland^[1][2].

The watershed contains fifteen smaller sub-watersheds, creating a complex mosaic of interconnected aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. These sub-watersheds include a rich diversity of lakes, wetlands, creeks, and tributaries, demonstrating the intimate connection between water and land in this region^[1]. The watershed features one major dam—Dickson Dam—located upstream of the City of Red Deer, which is used primarily for flow regulation^[1].

What makes this region particularly significant for grazing history is its remarkable diversity of grassland ecosystems. Within the five major natural regions, there are twelve distinct sub-regions, each contributing differently to the flow of the Red Deer River and its ecological characteristics^[2]. The Grassland Natural Region, which comprises a significant portion of the watershed, includes four natural subregions: Dry Mixedgrass, Mixedgrass, Northern Fescue, and Foothills Fescue^[3][4]. These grassland ecosystems evolved over thousands of years under the influence of climate, fire, and most importantly, grazing by vast herds of bison—a relationship that would be fundamentally altered with European settlement.

Bison Nation: The Ecological Engineers of the Prairie

For nearly 10,000 years following the end of the Wisconsin glacial period, bison were the dominant large grazers of the Red Deer River watershed^[5][6]. These magnificent animals were not merely inhabitants of the landscape but rather keystone species that shaped the very structure and function of prairie ecosystems through their distinctive grazing patterns^[7][8].

Paleontological evidence reveals that bison have a deep history in this region. Fossils discovered near Edmonton indicate bison presence dating back approximately 13,000 years^[9]. During the height of their abundance, plains bison were vastly numerous, with population estimates ranging from 30 to 60 million across the Great Plains before European contact^[10][11]. Within what is now Alberta, plains bison were historically distributed throughout the central and southern regions, including the entire Red Deer River watershed^[10][5].

What made bison particularly influential as ecological engineers was their unique grazing behavior. Contrary to popular assumptions, bison were not random wanderers but rather practiced what might be considered North America's first rotational grazing system. Research indicates that approximately 90% of the bison population was migratory, while 10% remained sedentary^[11]. The sedentary population primarily inhabited the parklands year-round, while the migratory herds followed seasonal patterns of movement.

Interestingly, the seasonal movement of Western Canadian bison herds contradicts common misconceptions. Rather than moving south in winter, these herds actually trailed north to the parklands during the cold months^[11]. This northern movement provided them with shelter from winter storms and more reliable water sources in the form of snow. The native fescue range in the parklands, which had been lightly grazed in summer by the small resident population, offered substantial stockpiled forage for winter grazing^[11].

In summer, the herds would return to the short grass prairie of southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta. This timing optimized their grazing with the flowering of cool-season grasses and the active growth of warm-season grasses^[11]. During summer, the bison dispersed into smaller herds and remained constantly mobile, while in winter they gathered in larger groups that only moved when local forage was depleted^[11].

This natural rotation between summer and winter ranges resembled a two-paddock seasonal grazing system that maximized forage quantity and quality on both ranges^[11]. Through this pattern, bison maintained the health of prairie ecosystems, preventing forest encroachment, recycling nutrients, and creating habitat heterogeneity that supported hundreds of other prairie species^[6][8].

The Great Disappearance: Decline and Extirpation of Bison

The dramatic decline of bison populations in the 19th century represents one of North America's most rapid and consequential wildlife extinctions. By the 1860s, approximately two-thirds of the original bison population on the northern plains had already disappeared^[12]. Methodist missionary George McDougall grimly described the situation along the upper North Saskatchewan River as "a time of starvation. No buffalo"^[12].

Multiple factors contributed to this catastrophic decline. Commercial hunting for hides and meat played a significant role, as did prolonged drought periods between 1791-1873, disease, and the disruption of natural migration patterns due to expanding European settlement^[12]. Indigenous peoples, whose subsistence had long depended on bison, were forced to adapt their hunting practices in response to declining herds, traveling farther south and often coming into conflict with other tribes over the dwindling resource^[12].

By 1879, bison were essentially gone from the northern plains, with only a few small herds occasionally wandering north into Canadian territory^[12]. The suddenness of this disappearance shocked many observers, including Assistant North-West Mounted Police Commissioner James Macleod and Indian Commissioner Edgar Dewdney, who claimed in his first annual report that the "disappearance of the buffalo had taken the Government as much by surprise as the Indians"^[12].

The final chapter in the story of wild plains bison in Alberta came in 1889, when the last free-roaming individual was reportedly shot near the Hand Hills, not far from the Red Deer River^[5]. This marked the functional extinction of plains bison in the province, creating an ecological vacuum that would soon be filled by domesticated livestock.

The disappearance of bison had profound consequences for Indigenous communities, leading to widespread food insecurity and fundamentally altering their way of life. During the Treaty Six negotiations in 1876, First Nations leaders expressed deep concern about the vanishing herds and potential famine. When Treaty Commissioner Alexander Morris met with the Willow Cree near Duck Lake in late August 1876, one councillor told him: "I am alarmed when I look at the buffalo. It appears to me as if there is only one"^[12].

New Grazers on the Horizon: Introduction of Cattle and Horses

As bison populations collapsed across the prairies, new domesticated grazers began to appear on the landscape. The introduction of cattle and horses to the Red Deer River watershed marked the beginning of a fundamental transformation in the region's ecological and economic systems.

The Arrival of Cattle

The first domestic cattle in what would become Alberta were introduced gradually from the early 1860s to 1882, a period known as the "free grass" years before strict government legislation regarding settlement^[13]. The earliest documented breeding herd arrived in 1873, when Methodist missionary John McDougall and his trader brother David brought cattle south from Fort Edmonton to their mission near Morleyville on the Bow River^[13][14][15]. The following year, Kenneth McKenzie drove a larger herd to the same mission from Montana, while the North West Mounted Police brought a moderately large herd to their headquarters in Fort Macleod^[13][15].

The first true "range" herd—meaning cattle allowed to graze freely on open grassland—consisted of twenty-one cows and one bull released near Fort Macleod by Fred Kanouse in 1877^[13]. Kanouse simply allowed his cattle to feed independently throughout the winter, trusting in the rich and nutritious supply of native grasses. When he collected his herd the following spring, he reportedly experienced no losses^[13].

The success of these early cattle operations, combined with the visible abundance of grass along rivers like the Highwood and Bow where only a few buffalo remained, attracted more ambitious livestock initiatives. Montana trail riders Tom Lynch and George Emerson drove a thousand head—the largest herd to cross the international boundary at that time—north to the Highwood River in 1879^[13].

The Introduction of Horses

While cattle were newcomers to the region in the 1870s, horses had a longer but still relatively recent history. The horse was introduced to Alberta in the 1700s, profoundly changing life for Indigenous peoples and their traditional hunting dogs^[16]. First Nations in Alberta had obtained horses by the mid-1700s, and some of their stock likely formed the nuclei of the first wild horse herds in western Canada^[17].

Before the arrival of horses, Indigenous peoples in southern Alberta had relied on dogs for transportation, using travois (a frame of poles attached to a dog's back) to move tipi hides, poles, dried meat, and tools between camps^[16]. Dogs could transport between 90-270 kg of goods, but horses could pull approximately eight times more, dramatically increasing mobility and hunting efficiency^[16].

By the time European settlement intensified in the 1870s, native horses (Indian ponies) were being used by Plains First Nations for buffalo hunting^[18]. European settlers brought additional horses, and the North West Mounted Police imported more when they arrived in 1874^[18]. By 1886, government officials estimated that approximately 10,000 horses existed in Southern Alberta, mostly in the Calgary and Macleod districts^[18].

The Golden Age of Ranching in the Red Deer River Watershed

The combination of bison extirpation, the proven success of early cattle operations, and government policy changes created conditions for the rapid expansion of ranching across the watershed in the 1880s and beyond.

The Rise of Large Ranches

The Canadian government under John A. MacDonald was eager to develop the West as part of its National Policy and feared American expansionism into the region. This led to amendments in the Dominion Land Policy in 1881 to allow large-scale land leasing in western Canada^[13]. With the government actively promoting cattle trade with Britain, businessmen from eastern Canada and Great Britain were enticed to invest in ranching operations in the newly opened frontier.

Among the most significant early operations was the Cochrane Ranch, established in the early 1880s along the Bow River west of Calgary^[19]. Senator Matthew Cochrane secured a 100,000-acre lease along the Bow River and hastily drove 3,000 cattle purchased in Montana to their new home in 1881, with another 5,000 added the following year^[13].

Other notable ranches included the Military Colonization Ranch started by Major-General Thomas Strange in 1883 on the north side of the Bow River, which raised horses for the British army and served as a haven for retired officers^[13]. The Circle Ranch concentrated in the Medicine Hat area, while Texas rancher A.J. "Tony" Day brought 25,000 cattle and 600 horses in 1902 to several leases stretching from Swift Current to Maple Creek, establishing what was called the Turkey Track Ranch^[13].

Horse ranching also flourished during this period, with significant breeding operations developing in the 1880s. Ranchers became enthusiastic about breeding horses for the British Army, with operations like the Quorn Ranch importing fine mares and famous sires such as Eagle Plume, Silk Gown, and Acrostic^[18].

Settlement and Ranching Around Red Deer

The area that would become the city of Red Deer saw its first European settlement in 1882, where the old Calgary-Edmonton Trail crossed the Red Deer River^[20]. During the North-West Resistance of 1885, the Canadian militia constructed Fort Normandeau at this location, which was later used by the North-West Mounted Police until 1893^[20].

In 1891, the settlement moved 7 kilometers downstream to a site on the newly constructed Calgary-Edmonton Railway (later part of the Canadian Pacific Railway)^[20]. The turn of the century brought a surge of growth as settlers flooded into the area to take up homesteads. Red Deer developed primarily as an agricultural service and distribution center, benefiting from its strategic location midway between Calgary and Edmonton in the center of a fertile mixed-farming district^[20].

One of the most notable ranchers in the broader region was John Ware, a former slave from the southern United States who moved to Canada after emancipation. In 1882, he secured employment as a cowboy on the Bar U ranch and became renowned throughout southern Alberta for his riding expertise^[21]. By 1892, Ware had established his own ranch on Sheep Creek with 200 head of cattle, later moving to a new ranch near Rosebud, Alberta in 1902 where his operation grew to 1,000 head of cattle^[21].

The Transition to Mixed Farming

By the turn of the century, the era of the large cattle companies began to wane. In the 1880s, the government had opened up land that had been used for large cattle ranches to new homesteads and rural townships^[19]. Many settlers arrived in the early 1900s, dividing the land into smaller plots, which affected wildlife corridors and put natural habitats at risk^[19].

The harsh winter of 1906-1907 dealt a severe blow to many large ranching operations, accelerating the transition to mixed farming^[13]. Farmers began to recognize that supplemental winter feeding was essential for cattle survival, having learned this lesson "the hard way in the late 1880s"^[13]. The understanding that "grain finished cattle gave a market advantage" led Alberta ranchers to explore new markets, though the full realization that Alberta should finish its own cattle on a large-scale basis came much later^[13].

The informal agreements between ranchers and farmers in the late 1920s, followed by efforts by feeder associations in the 1930s, demonstrated the growing recognition that "the economics of cattle raising and grain growing were inextricably entwined"^[13]. This evolution eventually led to the development of the modern custom feedlot in the post-World War Two era^[13].

Ecological Consequences: Comparing Bison and Cattle Grazing

The replacement of bison with cattle and horses represented far more than a simple substitution of one grazing animal for another—it fundamentally altered the ecological dynamics of the Red Deer River watershed.

Divergent Grazing Patterns

Long-term scientific studies have revealed significant differences in how bison and cattle impact prairie ecosystems. In a 29-year experiment at the Konza Prairie Biological Station in Kansas, researchers found that bison increased native plant species richness by 103% compared to ungrazed sites, while cattle caused a more modest 41% increase^[8]. These differences were even more pronounced at larger landscape scales.

The divergent impacts stem from fundamental differences in grazing behavior and habitat preference. Bison tend to be more selective in their grazing, concentrating on dominant grass species while leaving a greater diversity of forbs (flowering plants) and woody vegetation^[8]. In contrast, cattle have a less discriminating diet that often includes a higher proportion of forbs relative to grasses^[8].

Another critical difference is habitat selection. Studies show that bison select against low-elevations and woody vegetation compared to cattle, and forage farther from water sources^[7]. Camera trap records in stream areas demonstrate that cattle are detected significantly more frequently within streams than bison^[7]. This concentration of cattle activity in riparian zones often leads to bank erosion, water contamination, and degradation of sensitive stream habitats^[7].

Landscape Transformation

The shift from bison to cattle coincided with, and partly caused, dramatic changes to the grassland ecosystems of the Red Deer River watershed. It's estimated that 75% of Alberta's original mixed grassland has been converted to tame forage and annual cropping, while up to 80% of the region's wetlands have been converted or degraded^[22]. In Manitoba (representative of similar prairie ecosystems), approximately 80% of the mixed-grass prairie has disappeared, affecting the plants, insects, and animals that rely on it as habitat^[23].

These changes have been particularly pronounced in the Northern Fescue and Foothills Fescue grasslands that occur within the Red Deer River watershed. Only 17% of the original Alberta foothills fescue grassland remains, with the largest remaining tracts found within this watershed^[22]. These grasslands are not only ecologically important but also fragile, supporting numerous at-risk species that rely on this habitat for at least some stage of their life cycle^[22].

Resilience and Recovery

Research suggests that areas grazed by bison demonstrate greater ecological resilience than those grazed by cattle. During a severe drought in the 20th and 21st years of the Konza Prairie experiment (comparable to the Dust Bowl of the 1930s), sites with bison showed a temporary decline in species richness that rapidly recovered to match the pre-drought trend once conditions improved^[8]. In contrast, species richness in cattle-grazed areas fluctuated with no net increase by the end of the study period^[8].

This enhanced resilience likely stems from the deeper evolutionary relationship between bison and North American grasslands, which co-evolved over thousands of years. Bison grazing creates greater fine-scale environmental heterogeneity and supports higher plant and animal diversity, leading to more stable ecosystem functioning even during environmental stress^[8].

Modern Grazing Practices and Conservation Initiatives

Recognition of the ecological impacts of conventional cattle grazing has led to significant changes in management approaches within the Red Deer River watershed in recent decades. Modern grazing practices increasingly aim to mimic the natural patterns once created by bison, while conservation initiatives work to protect and restore the watershed's remaining natural areas.

Sustainable Grazing Management

Current grazing practices in the watershed focus heavily on rotational grazing, where livestock moves between smaller pastures to allow plant recovery^[24][25]. This approach more closely resembles the natural patterns of bison grazing, with periods of intensive use followed by rest and recovery.

Key management strategies include the use of electric fencing and permanent riparian fencing to control cattle access to sensitive areas^[25][26]. Alternative watering systems have been developed to draw cattle away from natural water sources, protecting stream banks and water quality^[26][27]. Other techniques include strategic placement of salt blocks and shelter away from riparian areas to improve cattle distribution across the landscape^[25].

These practices are designed to balance grazing on upland and riparian grasses, preventing overgrazing in shady, cool areas beside open water. The goal is to maintain and restore riparian areas while improving habitat for fish and other wildlife^[25]. Studies have shown that rotational grazing can be highly cost-effective, providing environmental benefits while actually increasing farm profits by approximately $4 per hectare per year^[24].

Conservation Programs and Initiatives

Several significant conservation programs operate within the Red Deer River watershed. Among the most successful is ALUS (Alternative Land Use Services) Red Deer County, launched in 2013 as the third ALUS program in Alberta^[27]. This program supports farmers and ranchers by helping them establish projects that produce ecosystem services on their land and providing annual payments for managing and maintaining these projects^[27].

As of 2019, more than 100 farmers and ranchers had enrolled almost 5,000 acres in the ALUS program^[27]. Their projects include more than 75 alternative watering systems for livestock and over 300,000 feet of riparian management fencing^[27]. These initiatives produce important ecosystem services such as cleaner air and water, improved fish and wildlife habitat, and enhanced flood and drought resilience^[27].

An eight-year project between Red Deer County and ALUS demonstrated that farmers can have a slow but significant beneficial impact on riparian areas through practices such as riparian management livestock fencing, alternative livestock watering systems, rotational grazing, planting native trees and shrubs, improving livestock crossings, and increasing buffer zones between crops and riparian areas^[26].

Reintroduction of Bison

Perhaps the most dramatic conservation initiative in the broader region is the reintroduction of bison to parts of their historic range. While not specifically within the Red Deer River watershed, these efforts provide valuable insights for future conservation in the region.

In 2017, Parks Canada initiated the reintroduction of plains bison into Banff National Park, which contains the headwaters of the Red Deer River^[5]. Other bison reintroduction projects across the Canadian Prairies have shown promising results for grassland restoration and biodiversity conservation^[23].

Studies of these reintroduction efforts confirm that bison serve as "keystone species" or "ecosystem engineers" because they create habitat for hundreds of other prairie species^[23]. Communities involved in bison restoration report multiple benefits, including "revitalizing the land, having flora and fauna that haven't been there for over 150 years back to the original state of the land when the bison were all roaming free"^[23].

Conclusion: The Evolving Relationship Between Land and Grazers

The grazing history of the Lower Red Deer River Watershed reflects a profound transformation in the relationship between humans, animals, and the landscape. Over the span of less than two centuries, the region witnessed the disappearance of vast bison herds that had shaped the prairie for millennia, followed by the rapid introduction and expansion of cattle and horse ranching, and now a gradual shift toward more sustainable grazing practices that attempt to restore some of the ecological functions lost with the bison.

This history reveals that grazing animals are not merely inhabitants of the landscape but active participants in shaping ecosystem structure and function. The different grazing patterns of bison and cattle have produced markedly different outcomes for plant diversity, riparian health, and ecosystem resilience, highlighting the importance of management approaches that consider these ecological relationships.

Today, as climate change poses new challenges for grassland ecosystems and water resources, the lessons from this grazing history become increasingly relevant. The sustainable practices now being implemented in the watershed—from rotational grazing to riparian protection—represent attempts to reconcile agricultural productivity with ecological integrity. Meanwhile, bison reintroduction initiatives in the broader region suggest growing recognition of the unique ecological role these native grazers once played.

The future of grazing in the Lower Red Deer River Watershed will continue to evolve as our understanding of these complex relationships deepens. But by learning from the past—from both the indigenous management systems that coexisted with bison and the agricultural innovations of European settlers—we can work toward grazing practices that sustain both human communities and the diverse ecosystems upon which they depend.

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• https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/ed43290b-b298-42eb-9ca1-ca1a50bb66e3/resource/632dc278-2488-498b-bb0b-08c382890590/download/af-nutrient-bmp-evaluation-project-volume-3-report-3.pdf  
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