Apisstotoki: The Creator in Blackfoot Cosmology and Culture

Apisstotoki stands as the supreme divine being in Blackfoot spirituality, representing the cosmic creative force that brought the universe into existence. At the heart of Blackfoot religious life, Apisstotoki embodies the foundational spiritual power that connects all beings within a sacred, interconnected cosmos. This comprehensive exploration examines the multifaceted nature of Apisstotoki, revealing how this deity shapes Blackfoot identity, ceremonial practices, and worldview while continuing to serve as a source of cultural renewal in contemporary Indigenous communities.

The Nature and Etymology of Apisstotoki

Apisstotoki represents the ultimate Creator in Blackfoot cosmology, a divine force of immense spiritual significance to the Blackfoot Confederacy, which comprises the Siksika (Blackfoot), Kainai (Blood), and Piikani (Peigan) peoples. The name "Apisstotoki" literally translates to "Our Creator" in the Blackfoot language^[1]. This divine entity is conceptualized as featureless and without physical form, emphasizing the transcendent nature of the creative force^[2]. While often referred to using male pronouns in translated texts, Apisstotoki exists beyond gender distinctions, representing pure creative energy rather than an anthropomorphic deity.

Several alternative names and spellings for Apisstotoki appear throughout historical and contemporary records, including Ihtsipatapiyohpa, Iihtsipaitapiiyo'pa, and simply "The Great Spirit"^[2]. These variations reflect both dialectical differences among Blackfoot-speaking peoples and the challenges of transliterating Indigenous spiritual concepts into English. Importantly, these different names all refer to the same divine creative force that holds paramount importance in Blackfoot spiritual life.

The Blackfoot people refer to themselves as "Niitsitapi" or "the Real People," reflecting their understanding that they exist as equal partners with all other beings in the universe created by Apisstotoki^[3]. This self-identification directly connects to their creation story and illustrates how the concept of Apisstotoki influences not just religious beliefs but foundational identity. The relationship between the Niitsitapi and Apisstotoki creates a framework of interconnectedness that guides ethical behavior, ceremonial practices, and community structures^[4].

The Blackfoot Creation Story

In Blackfoot cosmology, Apisstotoki features prominently as the architect of all existence, bringing order and purpose to the universe. According to traditional narratives, "Long ago the Creator (Apisstotoki) made the earth and all the different things in it. He told the earth (Ksahkomitapi) that she would be the mother of all that he had created and all his creation would live off her"^[3]. This foundational act establishes a sacred relationship between all beings and the earth, positioning Ksahkomitapi (Earth) as the nurturing mother to all of Apisstotoki's creations.

After creating the earth, Apisstotoki created the Sun (Natosi) and instructed him to provide light and warmth to everything. The Moon (Kokimmikisoom), Natosi's wife, was created along with her children, the stars (Kakatosiiks), to illuminate the night sky^[5][3]. This cosmic family represents the ordered structure of the heavens and establishes a celestial pattern that mirrors familial relationships on earth. Throughout these acts of creation, Apisstotoki demonstrates both omnipotence and benevolence, creating complementary forces that maintain cosmic balance.

After completing his creative work, Apisstotoki "called all his creation to name them and give them counsel. He told them that they must never forget their heritage, and remember that they came from the Above People (Spomi'tapiiks)"^[3]. This act of naming and categorizing beings established the hierarchical structure of the Blackfoot cosmos, with those living below the earth designated as Stahtsitapiiks, and those inhabiting the waters called Soyitapiiks^[5]. Through this naming ceremony, Apisstotoki created order from potential chaos and established the fundamental relationships between different categories of beings.

The creation story contains numerous versions, reflecting the oral tradition through which it has been preserved. In some accounts, Apisstotoki created Na'pi (Old Man), "the first man and demigod who shaped the world and created the rest of mankind"^[2]. Na'pi then works as Apisstotoki's disciple, completing various creative tasks while exhibiting trickster-like qualities that illustrate both wisdom and fallibility^[6]. Another version describes how Apisstotoki formed the first humans from clay or mud, breathing life into these figures and instructing them in proper living^[6]. These variations do not contradict each other but represent different facets of the same cosmological understanding, preserved through generations of storytellers.

Napi and the Completion of Creation

The figure of Napi (Old Man) occupies a complex position in relation to Apisstotoki. According to some narratives, Apisstotoki created Napi specifically to continue the work of creation and to care for Mother Earth and her many children^[6]. As Percy Bullchild explains, Creator Sun (another manifestation of Apisstotoki) made Napi "by using a small part of his great supernatural spirit, which was formed into a likeness of Mother Earth and her children"^[6]. This establishes Napi as both a creation of Apisstotoki and an extension of the Creator's will.

Napi completed many features of the traditional Blackfoot world, engaging in "many whimsical adventures and misadventures, often using mischief and trickster logic"^[6]. These stories of Napi serve not only as entertainment but as vehicles for transmitting cultural values, ecological knowledge, and ethical guidance. When Napi acts foolishly or selfishly, the consequences demonstrate proper behavior through negative example. Through Napi, Apisstotoki's abstract creative power takes on relatable, sometimes humorous dimensions that make cosmic wisdom accessible to ordinary people.

Spiritual Relationships and Cosmic Hierarchy

Apisstotoki exists at the pinnacle of a complex spiritual hierarchy that includes numerous divine and semi-divine beings. Understanding these relationships provides insight into how the Blackfoot conceptualize spiritual power and cosmic order. While Apisstotoki represents the ultimate creative force, other powerful entities play specific roles within the cosmic structure.

Natosi (Sun) holds particular significance in relation to Apisstotoki. Some anthropologists have equated Natosi with Apisstotoki, suggesting that the Sun represents a physical manifestation of the Creator's power^[2]. However, traditional Blackfoot understanding typically portrays Natosi as a creation of Apisstotoki, albeit one of immense importance. The Sun "was created and he was told that he would be the one to give light and warmth to everything"^[3]. This relationship reflects the hierarchical but interconnected nature of Blackfoot cosmology, where divine beings operate with considerable autonomy while fulfilling roles assigned by Apisstotoki.

The relationship between Apisstotoki and the Spomi'tapiiks (Above People or Sky Beings) further illustrates the structured nature of the Blackfoot spiritual cosmos. These beings include Natosi (Sun), his wife Ko'komiki'somm (Moon), and their children including Aapisowaahs (Morning Star)^[2]. These celestial beings serve as intermediaries between Apisstotoki and humanity, often appearing in dreams or visions to provide guidance, spiritual power, or ceremonial knowledge. Sacred bundles, central to Blackfoot ceremonial life, are derived from "a spiritual encounter by a person in a dream or vision quest with the Spomi'tapiiks"^[5]. These bundles then become vehicles for connecting with both the Spomi'tapiiks and Apisstotoki.

Other significant spirits in the Blackfoot cosmology include Thunder, Wind Maker, and Cold Maker, who were "worshipped to influence certain changes in nature like bringing rain and stopping storms"^[7]. These nature spirits, while powerful, remain subordinate to Apisstotoki, who created them and established their domains of influence. The Blackfoot also recognize spiritual forces in animals, plants, and geographical features, all of which derive their existence and power ultimately from Apisstotoki's creative act.

Ceremonial Connections: Worship and Spiritual Practices

The relationship between the Blackfoot people and Apisstotoki manifests through various ceremonial practices that serve to maintain cosmic harmony and strengthen community bonds. These rituals reflect the Blackfoot understanding that spiritual life permeates everyday existence rather than being confined to specific times or spaces. As Jim Kipp, a Blackfoot individual, explains: "Spiritual life for the Nitsitapi is not something relegated to Sundays. It is a way of walking through the world each and every day"^[8].

The Sun Dance (Okan)

The Sun Dance, or Okan, represents the highest and most sacred Blackfoot ceremony, serving as a primary means of connecting with Apisstotoki. Held annually during summer "when the sarvis berries are ripe," this ceremony involves "prayer, sacrifice, and renewal of vows"^[8]. The Sun Dance originated, according to legend, when a human woman named Feather-woman fell in love with Morning Star, the child of Sun and Moon^[7]. After a series of events led to her son, Poïa (Scar-Face), becoming orphaned, he eventually returned to Sky-Country, and the Sun Dance was established as a means of honoring the Creator^[5][7].

The ceremony serves multiple spiritual purposes: it strengthens community bonds, demonstrates personal sacrifice, and renews the relationship between the Blackfoot people and Apisstotoki. As one account explains: "The symbol of the Great Spirit, or God was the circle that represented the Earth, the Tipi, Sacred Hoops of Nations, and the Sun. The people themselves are part of that Mystic Circle with all living creatures"^[9]. During the Sun Dance, participants engage in fasting, prayer, and sometimes physical sacrifices to demonstrate their devotion to Apisstotoki and to seek blessings for the community.

The profound significance of the Sun Dance extends beyond religious devotion; it serves as "a manifestation of their beliefs, values, and identity, serving as a means to transmit cultural knowledge and teachings from one generation to the next"^[10]. Through this sacred ceremony, the abstract creative power of Apisstotoki becomes tangible in the lived experience of the community, reinforcing cultural identity and spiritual connections simultaneously.

Smudging and Pipe Ceremonies

Daily connection with Apisstotoki often occurs through smudging ceremonies, wherein "smoke from sacred plants, such as sage and sweetgrass, are fanned over people, objects or areas, and mixed with prayers"^[5]. This practice serves to cleanse participants of negative energy, purify their intentions, and carry their prayers directly to Apisstotoki. As one account describes, "The purpose behind smudging is to cover yourself and others with the smoke, blessing others and carrying prayers to Apisstotoki, also known as Ihtsi-pai-tapi-yopa, which carries the additional meaning of Source of All Life"^[5].

The practice remains vibrant in contemporary Blackfoot communities, with elders continuing to "welcome the sunrise through the sacred smudge of sweet grass or sage, seeking guidance for the day, as Natosi journeys over the tall grasses of the prairie"^[5]. This daily ritual reinforces the continuous relationship between the Blackfoot people and their Creator, embedding spiritual practice in everyday life rather than relegating it to special occasions.

Pipe ceremonies similarly facilitate connection with Apisstotoki. Considered "sacred to many ceremonial occasions," smoking the pipe was once "so essential that every family owned at least one pipe"^[5]. The pipe serves as a conduit for prayers, with the smoke carrying messages upward to Apisstotoki. The ceremonial nature of pipe smoking emphasizes that communication with the Creator requires proper preparation, respect, and intention.

Sacred Objects and Material Culture

Material objects play a crucial role in facilitating connection between the Blackfoot people and Apisstotoki. While Apisstotoki remains formless and beyond physical representation, various sacred items serve as conduits for spiritual power and communication with the divine. These objects embody not just religious significance but cultural knowledge and historical continuity.

Sacred Bundles

Sacred bundles hold central importance in Blackfoot ceremonial life and their connection to Apisstotoki. These bundles are "at the very heart of what it means to be Siksika. We treat them as individual beings, caring for them like children"^[5]. Each bundle originates from "a spiritual encounter by a person in a dream or vision quest with the Spomi'tapiiks, who give sacred items to be kept within the bundles"^[5]. The bundles thus contain physical manifestations of spiritual knowledge and power, serving as tangible links to Apisstotoki and the Sky Beings.

The bundles are "used in ceremonies to connect with the Spomi'tapiiks or to ask for help from Apisstotoki"^[5]. This function highlights their role as mediators between the physical and spiritual realms, allowing ceremonial practitioners to access divine assistance and guidance. The respectful treatment of bundles—keeping them elevated on the west wall of tipis and moving them throughout the day to follow the sun—emphasizes their sacred status^[5]. Their care and use require specialized knowledge transmitted through generations of ceremonial practitioners.

Various types of bundles exist, including "beaver, medicine pipe, and Sun Dance bundles"^[5], each with specific purposes and ceremonial contexts. Some bundles take "the form of headdresses, shirts, shields, knives, and lances," while "painted lodges are considered to be medicine bundles"^[5]. This diversity reflects the multifaceted nature of Blackfoot ceremonial life and the various ways in which connection with Apisstotoki can be facilitated.

The historical removal of bundles to museums severely impacted Blackfoot ceremonial practices, as "the removal of bundles to museums and their retention in collections has impacted adversely on ceremonial life and contributed to the dissolution of some of the ceremonial societies that managed and cared for the bundles and to the loss of associated knowledge"^[11]. The repatriation of these sacred objects has thus become central to cultural revitalization efforts, as discussed in a later section.

Symbolic Representations

While Apisstotoki lacks direct visual representation due to being "featureless as he is the divine creator"^[2], certain symbols serve to evoke the Creator's presence. Most prominently, "the symbol of the Great Spirit, or God was the circle that represented the Earth, the Tipi, Sacred Hoops of Nations, and the Sun"^[9]. This circular symbolism reflects the cyclical, interconnected nature of creation and the omnipresence of Apisstotoki throughout the cosmos.

The symbolic association of Apisstotoki with the Sun explains the importance of solar imagery in Blackfoot ceremonial contexts, particularly the Sun Dance. However, it's important to note that while Natosi (Sun) may serve as a physical manifestation of divine power, Apisstotoki transcends this manifestation as the ultimate source of all existence. The relationship between symbol and deity remains complex, with physical representations serving as reminders of rather than equivalents to the Creator's power.

Contemporary Relevance and Cultural Revitalization

Apisstotoki continues to hold profound importance in contemporary Blackfoot communities, serving as both a spiritual foundation and a source of cultural identity. Despite historical pressures from colonization, Christianity, and forced assimilation, traditional understandings of Apisstotoki have persisted and are now experiencing renewal through various cultural revitalization efforts.

Repatriation and Ceremonial Renewal

The repatriation of sacred objects has played a crucial role in renewing ceremonial connections to Apisstotoki. The return of sacred bundles to Blackfoot communities represents not only the restoration of material heritage but the revival of spiritual relationships. As one account explains, "It is not, therefore, just the sacred bundles as objects that are being returned but the means to transfer and perpetuate knowledge"^[11]. This knowledge includes traditional understandings of Apisstotoki and proper ways of communicating with the Creator.

The process of repatriation has "led to the return of a number of bundles and the renewal of ceremonies not practised for many decades"^[11]. This revival of ceremonial practice strengthens the relationship between contemporary Blackfoot people and Apisstotoki, allowing traditional knowledge to once again circulate within communities. The reconnection of "Blackfoot people with their spiritual knowledge and ceremonial activities is a key component of contemporary Blackfoot cultural renewal strategies"^[11], demonstrating how ancient understandings of Apisstotoki remain relevant to modern identity formation.

Blackfoot Cultural Confidence

The renewed connection with Apisstotoki through repatriated sacred objects and revitalized ceremonies has contributed significantly to what Gerald Conaty describes as "the restoration of Blackfoot cultural confidence"^[12]. This confidence manifests as "renewed pride, self-confidence, and well-being among the Blackfoot," qualities that are "the fundamental ingredients of cultural survival and prosperity"^[12]. The relationship with Apisstotoki thus provides not only spiritual fulfillment but psychological and community wellness.

Contemporary Blackfoot individuals continue to understand themselves as "Niitsitapi, or real people, who were created by Apisstotoki to live in harmony and equality with all other beings in our universe"^[4]. This self-identification reflects the enduring relevance of traditional cosmology in shaping modern Indigenous identity. As "Land Keepers and stewards to all living things," contemporary Blackfoot people maintain their ancestral responsibility to care for Apisstotoki's creation^[4].

The ongoing importance of Apisstotoki in Blackfoot life challenges assumptions about the inevitability of spiritual assimilation in contemporary Indigenous communities. Instead, traditional understandings of the Creator have demonstrated remarkable resilience, adapting to changing circumstances while maintaining their essential characteristics. This persistence speaks to both the depth of Blackfoot spiritual traditions and their continued relevance in addressing contemporary challenges.

Oral Tradition and Knowledge Transmission

The knowledge of Apisstotoki has been preserved primarily through oral tradition, with stories passing from one generation to the next through formal and informal channels. These narratives serve not merely as entertainment but as repositories of cultural wisdom, ethical guidance, and spiritual instruction. As Stephen Yellow Old Woman, General Manager of Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park, explains: "This book is more than just a book. It is a symbolic representation of our oral tradition. You may read and learn from it, but I ask you to carry out the intent of our oral tradition by telling these stories to someone, so that they may never be forgotten"^[5].

Traditional Blackfoot storytelling follows specific protocols regarding who may tell certain stories and in what contexts. Generally, "only the elders of the Blackfoot tribes are allowed to tell the tales, and are typically difficult to obtain because the elders of the tribes are often reluctant to tell them to strangers who are not of the tribe"^[2]. This restriction serves to maintain the integrity of the knowledge and ensures its proper transmission within appropriate cultural contexts.

The stories of Apisstotoki's creative acts and Napi's adventures serve multiple functions simultaneously. They explain natural phenomena, establish ethical principles, preserve historical knowledge, and strengthen community bonds. When shared in ceremonial contexts, these narratives become not just stories but sacred acts that reconnect participants with the cosmic order established by Apisstotoki. The revival of storytelling traditions thus represents an essential component of broader cultural revitalization efforts.

Conclusion

Apisstotoki, the Creator in Blackfoot cosmology, represents far more than a distant deity or abstract concept. As the foundation of all existence and the ultimate source of spiritual power, Apisstotoki permeates every aspect of traditional Blackfoot life and continues to influence contemporary cultural identity. The complex relationships between Apisstotoki and other spiritual beings—including Natosi (Sun), Napi (Old Man), and the various Spomi'tapiiks (Sky Beings)—illustrate a sophisticated cosmological understanding that positions humans within a vast, interconnected spiritual ecosystem.

The ceremonial practices that facilitate connection with Apisstotoki, particularly the Sun Dance, smudging rituals, and pipe ceremonies, demonstrate the integrated nature of Blackfoot spirituality, where the sacred infuses everyday experience rather than remaining separated from it. Material culture, especially sacred bundles, provides tangible links to the Creator's power while embodying generations of accumulated spiritual knowledge.

Despite historical challenges including colonization, forced assimilation, and the disruption of traditional practices, Blackfoot understanding of Apisstotoki has demonstrated remarkable resilience. Contemporary cultural revitalization efforts, particularly the repatriation of sacred objects and renewal of ceremonies, have strengthened the relationship between Blackfoot communities and their Creator. This renewed connection contributes significantly to cultural confidence, community wellbeing, and a sense of continuity with ancestral traditions.

Ultimately, Apisstotoki remains at the heart of what it means to be Niitsitapi—the Real People—providing both an explanation for existence and a framework for living harmoniously within the created world. As contemporary Blackfoot communities navigate the complexities of modern life, the timeless wisdom embodied in their understanding of Apisstotoki continues to offer guidance, inspiration, and a profound sense of identity rooted in ancient yet ever-relevant spiritual truths.

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