Indigenous History of Red Deer and Area: A Journey Through Time

Red Deer, situated at the historical crossing of the Red Deer River, stands as a significant historical landscape where multiple Indigenous nations' territories converge. This region has been home to Indigenous peoples for thousands of years, with a rich and complex history that continues to shape the area's cultural identity. The following report explores the deep Indigenous roots of Red Deer and surrounding areas, from traditional territories and lifeways to the impacts of European contact and contemporary cultural revitalization efforts.

Traditional Territories and Peoples

Red Deer is located on the traditional territory of the Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot Confederacy), Tsuut'ina, Stoney Nakoda, Cree, Saulteaux and Métis peoples^[1]. This area is particularly significant as it marks the boundary between Treaty 6 territory to the north of the Red Deer River, which is the ancestral and traditional territory of the Cree, Dene, Blackfoot, and Saulteaux, and Treaty 7 territory to the south, which is the ancestral land of the Blackfoot Confederacy, Tsuut'ina, and Stoney Nakoda First Nations^[2].

The name "Red Deer" itself reflects a cultural misunderstanding that has persisted for generations. The Cree called the river "wâwâskêsiw-sîpiy" or "Waskasoo Seepee," which translates to "Elk River." However, British traders unfamiliar with local wildlife mistakenly thought the local elk were the same as the European red deer, and the mistranslated name endured^[3].

Prior to European arrival, the Red Deer area served as a crucial crossroads. A wide, shallow portion of the Red Deer River approximately 7 kilometers upstream from the modern city allowed buffalo and First Nations to cross the river on their journeys between northern and southern territories^[3]. This natural crossing point made the area a significant gathering place where different nations would "meet in peace and trade, hold ceremonies and co-exist"^[4].

Cultural Significance of the Land

Central Alberta represented more than just a geographic location for Indigenous peoples—it embodied complex spiritual and practical significance. The crossing of the Red Deer River marked the transition between different ecosystems, with the parklands and forests to the north and the open plains to the south. This ecological diversity supported different lifeways and created natural boundaries between nations while simultaneously serving as a meeting ground^[4].

For the Blackfoot Confederacy, comprising the Siksika, Kainai, and Piikani Nations, the territory south of the Red Deer River formed part of their traditional homeland, where they developed sophisticated cultural practices intimately connected to the prairie landscape^[5]. The Cree and Métis peoples utilized territories primarily to the north but would seasonally move through the region as part of their traditional subsistence patterns^[4].

Traditional Lifeways and Subsistence Patterns

Buffalo-Centered Existence

The Indigenous peoples of the Red Deer area, particularly those of the plains such as the Blackfoot, developed lifeways intimately connected to the buffalo (bison). As described by Frank Gilbert Roe, "The buffalo were one of the most erratic, incalculable species that ever trod the earth"^[6], yet Indigenous nations developed sophisticated knowledge systems to predict and follow these herds that were essential to their survival.

The Plains peoples led what anthropologists describe as a "hunting and gathering existence, primarily hunting a single animal species - the buffalo"^[6]. The Blackfoot referred to buffalo as their "real food," while the Piegan considered themselves to be "starving" when fresh buffalo meat was unavailable^[6]. This relationship went far beyond mere sustenance—buffalo provided materials for clothing, shelter, tools, cooking utensils, and numerous other essential items^[6].

Sophisticated Hunting Techniques

Indigenous hunters employed various sophisticated methods to harvest buffalo, reflecting their intimate knowledge of animal behavior and the landscape. They used stealth techniques—sometimes cloaking themselves in wolf skins or mimicking the cries of bison calves—to get within bow and arrow range^[7]. More commonly, communities coordinated to funnel buffalo herds toward natural landscape features like cliffs, creating what are now known as "buffalo jumps"^[7].

The Kainai, Piikuni, Cree, and Tsuu T'ina peoples developed especially sophisticated buffalo jump techniques, stampeding buffalo between barriers made of logs interwoven with brush that led to a cliff where the animals would plummet to their deaths^[7]. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump in southwestern Alberta, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, stands as testament to this ingenious hunting method that required precise coordination and ecological knowledge^[7].

With the introduction of horses around 1730, hunting methods evolved to include mounted "charge" and "surround" techniques, making hunting more efficient. Within 40 years, mounted hunting became nearly universal among Plains peoples, fundamentally transforming their relationship with the land^[7].

Seasonal Patterns

The movements of Indigenous peoples followed seasonal patterns aligned with buffalo migrations and other resource availability. From late spring to early fall, when buffalo grazed on the open plains and congregated in large herds for rutting season, Plains tribes would gather in large camps to conduct communal hunts^[6]. Early summer was when buffalo bulls were in prime condition—the only time of year when bulls and cows were hunted in large numbers^[6].

More recent research has challenged earlier anthropological assumptions, revealing that "both the buffalo and the Indians could be found in either small or large groups during the fall and winter months" and that "communal buffalo hunting took place throughout the winter and early spring, rather than mainly in the fall and winter"^[6]. This highlights the adaptability and sophistication of Indigenous subsistence strategies.

Indigenous Spirituality and Ceremonial Practices

Cosmological Beliefs

For the Blackfoot peoples, the spiritual world was dominated by the Sun (Nah-too-si), often equated with the Creator (Apistotoke)^[8]. The Creator was believed to have formed the earth and everything in the universe. This spiritual force was sometimes personified through Napi, or Old Man, who was said to have been sent by Nah-too-si to teach people how to live properly^[8].

Indigenous spiritual beliefs in the Red Deer area were characterized by a deep connection between the physical and spiritual realms. The Blackfoot people regarded the physical world as "just a glimpse of the spiritual dimension, which is actually the true reality"^[8]. This perspective informed how Indigenous peoples understood their relationship with the land and all living beings.

Certain numbers, particularly four and seven, as well as cardinal directions, held special significance in Blackfoot mythology. Communication with the supernatural world occurred primarily through visions of guardian spirits, during which songs and ceremonies might be imparted^[8].

Sacred Ceremonies

The Sun Dance, called Medicine Lodge by the Blackfoot in English, represented one of the most sacred ceremonies for Plains peoples^[8]. For the Plains Cree, sponsoring the Pâhkwesimôwin (Sundance) constituted "one of the biggest spiritual, social, and economic commitments a person could make"^[9]. The dance involved sacrifice as a means to connect with the Creator, with participants offering gifts and committing to important cultural values like hope, peace, and harmony^[9].

The ancient practice of vision quests held particular significance across many nations. This ritual involved spending time in a sweat lodge followed by four days and four nights in nature without food or drink, where spirit guides would come to the seeker with guidance^[10]. Vision quest sites, more than 160 of which have been identified from the Crowsnest Pass through Montana, were often marked by rocks placed in specific formations. The most sacred site to the Blackfoot was Chief Mountain (Ninistakis), followed by Crowsnest Peak and Devils Thumb^[10].

The Mâhtâhitowin or "Give-Away Dance" held by the Plains Cree in fall or early winter represented another important ceremonial practice. Communities would pray for good hunts and long lives, with the timing of the ceremony—just before winter—being significant, as "the feasts and generous exchange of gifts were thought to ward off starvation or other hardships during the long winter"^[9].

European Contact and the Fur Trade Era

Initial Encounters

The first Europeans to reach what is now Alberta were French fur traders in the 1730s who established trading relationships directly with Indigenous peoples^[11]. The first documented European visit to the present-day Red Deer area came in 1754-55 when fur trader Anthony Henday explored the vicinity "in an attempt to establish direct trade between Hudson's Bay and the people of the prairies"^[11].

These early encounters began to transform Indigenous lifeways as European goods were introduced and trade networks expanded. The Blackfoot term for "Frenchman" translates to "real white man," suggesting these were among the first Europeans they encountered^[11].

Development of the Crossing Settlement

The Red Deer River Crossing emerged as a significant settlement point as European presence in the region increased. The crossing point, which had been used by Indigenous peoples for countless generations, became a focal point for trade and travel along the Calgary-Edmonton Trail^[3].

During the North-West Resistance in 1885, the Canadian militia constructed Fort Normandeau at the river crossing site. The fort was subsequently used by the North-West Mounted Police until 1893^[1]. Fort Normandeau stands as a physical reminder of this transitional period in the region's history—a time when Indigenous sovereignty was being challenged by expanding Canadian governmental control^[12].

Métis Settlement

The Métis, descendants of European fur traders and Indigenous peoples who emerged as a distinct nation in the early 19th century, established significant communities in the Red Deer area. The McKenzie family, who arrived from the Red River settlement in Manitoba in 1882, represents one of the earliest and most influential Métis families in the region^[13].

Roderick McKenzie, along with other family members, settled along the Red Deer River between the mouths of Waskasoo Creek and the Blindman River. Despite a difficult first winter, they returned to Manitoba and brought back "eight families of relatives and friends" along with equipment including "a steam boiler and engine, a threshing machine and a complete sawmill outfit"^[13]. Their epic journey covered more than 1,600 kilometers with no roads to follow or bridges to cross^[13].

The McKenzies established infrastructure crucial to early development, including the McKenzie Trail and a ferry at the mouth of the Blindman River, contributing significantly to the region's early European-style development^[13]. Their story illustrates how Métis families served as cultural intermediaries during this transitional period in Canadian history.

Treaties and Colonial Policies

Treaty Territories and Signings

Red Deer's geographic position places it at the boundary between two significant treaties. Treaty 6, covering territories north of the Red Deer River, was signed in August and September 1876 between Crown representatives and Cree, Assiniboine, and Ojibwe leaders^[14]. Treaty 7, encompassing lands south of the river, was signed on September 22, 1877, by the Siksika (Blackfoot), Kainai (Blood), Piikani (Peigan), Stoney-Nakoda, and Tsuut'ina (Sarcee) Nations^[15].

These treaties were negotiated in the context of profound change for Indigenous nations. The buffalo herds upon which many relied were rapidly diminishing, there had been repeated outbreaks of smallpox, and new settlers were introducing disruptive elements like the whiskey trade^[15]. For the Canadian government, the treaties served to extinguish Aboriginal title to enable railway construction and settlement^[15].

Differing Perspectives on Treaties

The treaties represent fundamentally different understandings between the signatories. From the Crown's perspective, treaties involved "the surrendering of large parcels of land to the Crown with small parcels set aside for reserve land"^[16]. However, First Nations signatories understood they were "agreeing to share the land and its resources rather than to completely surrender it to the Crown"^[16].

For Indigenous leaders, the pipe ceremonies conducted prior to treaty signings carried strong cultural and spiritual significance. Participation in these sacred ceremonies required all parties to speak truthfully during negotiations and honor commitments made in their presence^[16]. This spiritual dimension of treaty-making is often overlooked in colonial historical accounts but remains central to Indigenous understandings of these agreements.

Residential School System

One of the most devastating colonial policies affecting Indigenous peoples in the Red Deer area was the establishment of the Red Deer Indian Industrial School. Opening in 1893, it was the first Methodist residential school in the area and operated until 1919^[17]. The school was located west of Red Deer, across the river from Fort Normandeau, and was unique in being situated far from the Indigenous communities it was meant to serve—the nearest reserve was 65 kilometers away^[18].

The school's location reflected government philosophy at the time: "since the idea was to educate native children in European culture and ways of living and to make a break with traditional cultures, sites were sought that were a substantial distance from reserves and close to a 'white' urban centre"^[19]. This intentional separation from family and community formed part of the broader assimilation agenda.

The consequences were devastating. According to official school records, "more than one third of the students enrolled in the first two years of the school's operation died"^[19]. The school was plagued by inadequate funding, leading to poor sanitation, overcrowding, difficulty attracting qualified staff, and high staff turnover^[19]. The extensive list of student deaths documented in the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation records reveals the human toll of this institutional violence^[18].

Contemporary Indigenous Presence and Revitalization

Demographics and Growth

Today, Red Deer has a significant and growing Indigenous population. As of 2021, 6,470 people identified as Indigenous in Red Deer, representing the fifth-highest Indigenous population among Alberta municipalities^[20]. This population increased by 24.8% over five years, demonstrating significant growth^[20].

The Indigenous community in Red Deer is diverse, with Métis people comprising the largest group at 56.3%, followed by First Nations at 39.6%, and Inuit at 1.1%^[21]. The Indigenous population is notably younger than the non-Indigenous population, with an average age of 29.6 years compared to 37.4 years for non-Indigenous residents^[21]. This demographic reality points to the importance of youth-focused cultural initiatives.

Cultural Revitalization Efforts

Numerous organizations work to preserve and promote Indigenous cultures within Red Deer. The Red Deer Indigenous Dance Troupe Society exemplifies these efforts, serving to "preserve and promote Indigenous cultures and heritages" while welcoming participants of all ethnic backgrounds^[22]. Their activities include traditional dance instruction, drumming, ceremonies, and regalia-making workshops^[22].

The Dance Troupe offers instruction in various traditional dance styles, including "Men's and Ladies Traditional, Grass, Jingle, Fancy, Hoop, Couples, and Round Dances" while following traditional Pow-Wow protocol^[22]. Their philosophy centers on the belief that "children are our future" and aims to give all community members "an opportunity to share and learn in culture"^[22][23].

Truth and Reconciliation Initiatives

The City of Red Deer has formally acknowledged its responsibility in the reconciliation process. On June 21, 2017, Red Deer City Council and the Urban Aboriginal Voices Society signed a Protocol Agreement during a ceremony in Council Chambers, formalizing their commitment to improving relationships^[4].

The city recognizes that "the process of Truth and Reconciliation is one that takes time" and requires humility and mutual respect^[4]. Public Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings held in Red Deer have provided spaces for residential school survivors to share their experiences of "loneliness and physical labour... being forbidden to speak their language and going without shoes"^[24].

Organizations like the Remembering The Children Society work to accurately record the history of the Red Deer Indian Industrial School and identify the children impacted by it^[17]. These efforts at historical truth-telling represent essential steps toward healing and reconciliation.

Conclusion

The Indigenous history of Red Deer reveals a landscape deeply shaped by the presence and practices of diverse First Nations and Métis peoples long before European arrival. From the traditional territories of the Blackfoot Confederacy, Cree, Tsuut'ina, Stoney Nakoda, and Métis peoples to the contemporary cultural revitalization efforts of organizations like the Red Deer Indigenous Dance Troupe, this history continues to influence and inform the present.

The region's significance as a crossing point—geographically, culturally, and historically—remains evident. Located at the boundary between Treaty 6 and Treaty 7 territories, Red Deer continues to be a place where diverse peoples and perspectives converge. While colonial policies, particularly the residential school system, inflicted profound trauma, the resilience of Indigenous cultures and the growth of the Indigenous population in Red Deer speak to ongoing processes of healing and revitalization.

Understanding the full complexity of this history requires acknowledging both the devastating impacts of colonization and the enduring strength of Indigenous cultural traditions. As Red Deer moves forward with formal reconciliation initiatives, this deeper understanding becomes essential for building respectful relationships that honor the area's first peoples and their continuing contributions to the region's identity.

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