Was the Egyptian population in the days of pharaohs composed mostly of slaves?

The Egyptian population during the days of the pharaohs was not composed mostly of slaves. Instead, the majority of the population consisted of peasant farmers, who made up approximately 80% of the society, providing the essential resources for the civilization's survival over millennia12. Slaves, while present, formed the lowest rung of the social hierarchy, below peasants, and their numbers were significantly smaller in comparison31.

Estimates of the total population during different periods of ancient Egypt vary widely due to the lack of comprehensive records or censuses. During the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BCE), for instance, the population is estimated to have been between 2.5 to 4.5 million45, with some sources suggesting it reached up to 4 million during this era of imperial expansion5. While precise figures for the slave population are speculative due to insufficient data, scholars like John Madden estimate that during the Roman Empire, slaves in Egypt likely did not exceed 10% of the population, a much lower proportion compared to other parts of the Roman Empire4.

Slavery in ancient Egypt was a complex system that included war captives, debtors, and individuals born into servitude, with roles ranging from domestic and agricultural labor to temple service627. However, the notion that slaves were the backbone of major projects like the pyramids is a misconception; recent evidence indicates that such structures were built by paid workers or conscripted farmers, not slaves67. The reliance on slave labor did increase during the New Kingdom due to military campaigns and the need to support a standing army, but slaves remained a minority within the broader population42.

In the social pyramid of ancient Egypt, slaves were at the bottom, with peasants, craftsmen, scribes, nobles, and the pharaoh occupying higher tiers31. This structure, rooted in the cultural principle of ma'at (harmony and balance), prioritized stability over social mobility, reinforcing the dominance of free peasants and workers over enslaved individuals1. Thus, while slavery was an integral part of the economy and social order, the population was predominantly composed of free individuals, particularly peasant farmers.

1. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1123/social-structure-in-ancient-egypt/
2. https://www.coolaboo.com/world-history/ancient-egypt/ancient-egyptian-slaves/
3. https://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/ancient-egypt-social-structure.html
4. https://www.thetorah.com/article/ancient-egypt-population-estimates-slaves-and-citizens
5. https://egyptatours.com/what-was-the-population-of-ancient-egypt/
6. https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-ca/blog/ancient-egyptian-civilization/slavery-in-ancient-egypt/
7. https://libguides.msben.nsw.edu.au/slaveryancienttimes
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
10. https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-ca/race-of-ancient-egyptians/