Key Facts
- Timeframe: Flourished from approximately 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, with its mature phase between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE[1][2].
- Location: Spanned a vast area of present-day Pakistan, northwest India, and northeast Afghanistan, primarily along the Indus River and its tributaries[1][2].
- Major Cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the largest urban centers, with over 1,000 additional towns and villages discovered[3][4].
Urban Planning and Society
- City Layout: Cities featured advanced urban planning, including grid-pattern streets, sophisticated drainage systems, public granaries, and baths[3][4].
- Population: Harappa and Mohenjo-daro each supported populations estimated between 23,500–41,250, with the civilization’s total population possibly reaching five million[3][4].
- Governance: The uniformity in artifacts, weights, and city layouts suggests some form of centralized authority, though the exact nature of political organization remains debated[4].
Agriculture and Economy
- Primary Crops: Wheat and barley were the staple crops, with evidence of mustard, sesame, cotton, dates, and various legumes also cultivated[3][5][6].
- Farming Techniques: Farmers practiced rabi (winter) and kharif (summer) cropping, leveraging seasonal river inundation and advanced irrigation systems such as canals and wells[5][6].
- Domesticated Animals: Included cattle (zebu), buffalo, sheep, goats, dogs, cats, and possibly elephants[3].
- Technology: The plow was developed early, and stone sickles were commonly used for harvesting. Granaries stored surplus crops, which may have been collected as taxes or used for wages[5][6].
- Trade: Commerce was significant, with evidence of trade links to Mesopotamia and other regions[3][1].
Art, Culture, and Writing
- Artifacts: The civilization is known for its pottery, seals, standardized bricks, jewelry, and figurines.
- Writing: The Indus Script remains undeciphered, leaving much of the civilization’s language and records a mystery[2].
- Religion and Rituals: Public baths and ritual objects suggest a culture with religious or ritualistic elements, though specific beliefs are not well understood[3][4].
Decline and Disappearance
- Timeline: The civilization began to decline around 1900 BCE; major cities were gradually abandoned by 1700 BCE[2][7].
- Theories of Decline:
- Environmental Changes: The drying up or shifting of major rivers, especially the Saraswati and Indus, led to water scarcity and agricultural decline[8][7][9].
- Natural Disasters: Floods, earthquakes, and changing monsoon patterns contributed to urban decline[8][7][9].
- Climate Change: Reduced monsoon intensity and prolonged droughts made large-scale agriculture unsustainable, forcing populations to migrate to smaller villages[9][10].
- Other Theories: Some scholars have proposed invasions or internal social upheaval, but environmental factors are now considered primary[7][11][9].
Legacy
- The Indus Valley Civilization represents one of the earliest and most sophisticated urban societies in human history, noted for its urban planning, agricultural innovation, and extensive trade networks. Its decline is often cited as a classic example of how environmental change can reshape civilizations[3][2][7].
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- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation
- https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization/
- https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization
- https://www.drishtiias.com/blog/indus-valley-civilisation
- https://press.rebus.community/historyoftech/chapter/tools-of-agriculture-in-the-indus-civilization/
- https://visionias.in/current-affairs/monthly-magazine/2025-05-17/ancient-indian-history/agriculture-in-indus-valley-civilization
- https://compass.rauias.com/ancient-history/decline-indus-valley-civilisation/
- https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-exam/decline-of-indus-valley-civilization/
- https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/disappearance-of-the-indus-valley-civilization/
- https://www.science.smith.edu/climatelit/decline-of-the-indus-river-valley-civilization-c-3300-1300-bce/
- https://www.historyjournal.net/article/45/2-2-20-488.pdf
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